41 ms·
Experiments find higher social class more likely to have inflated sense of skill
- CoolGuySteve 7y agoWhen I took a social psychology class long ago, they mentioned that the most significant cultural difference between Canadians and Americans was that Americans take overconfidence as a sign of competence whereas Canadians perceive it as an attempt to intimidate or take advantage of someone. Seems to apply to this article as well. Maybe 'high-class' overconfident people become more convincing as wealth disparity widens due to the magic sauce they must obviously possess to be so rich in the first place. It's like Gob's bragging from Arrested Development: "The guy in the $4,000 suit is holding the elevator for a guy who doesn’t make that in three months. Come on!" I'm having a hard time finding a paper about the US/Canada difference now though, so maybe I'm wrong.
- JohnFen 7y ago> the most significant cultural difference between Canadians and Americans was that Americans take overconfidence as a sign of competence whereas Canadians perceive it as an attempt to intimidate or take advantage of someone. Interesting... I'm an American, but apparently more Canadian in attitude about this. I've always taken overconfidence (or, worse, braggadocio) as a sign of incompetence.
- lotsofpulp 7y agoThe trouble with the world is that the stupid are cocksure and the intelligent are full of doubt. – Bertrand Russell
- cmuguythrow 7y agoAnecdote from when I was in China. My friend and I were walking down the street in Jinan (a big city though not one of the Major Chinese cities - think Pittsburgh in the US) when a yellow Ferrari fishtailed around the corner, squealing its tires and speeding away down the street. My immediate reaction - which I imagine to be the average American reaction - was "what an asshole". However, the Chinese around us on the street had quite a different reaction: "wow what a cool guy/car". Not really sure what this means about the perceptions of displays of status between the two cultures, but it's something that has stuck with me ever since.
- skookumchuck 7y agoAmericans tend to regard anyone driving a Ferrari as an asshole, regardless of how they drive.
- mtnGoat 7y agowe tend to think anyone sliding around corners and squealing tires to be one as well. this driver wad doubling down.
- skookumchuck 7y ago> we tend to think anyone sliding around corners and squealing tires to be one as well So why mention the type of car?
- EdwardDiego 7y agoOr struggling to drive their highly powerful car.
- GalacticDomin8r 7y agoDon't see many Ferrari's, but I can tell you a Prius driver is almost certainly an asshole. They are either Top Gear driving or Hypermiling, either way its at least a nuisance and sometimes a menace.
- leetcrew 7y ago
- tamalesfan 7y agoAnd then there is Trudeau... pure charisma, arrogantly certain of his establishment group-think and almost entirely incompetent.
- tychonoff 7y agoPresumably you mean Justin. His father, Pierre, was supremely confident and for good reason. He was in a class by himself as an intellectual and politician.
- tamalesfan 7y agoWhat I know if Pierre is that he was Left wing statesman, and like all Left wing leaders he has been sainted by the establishment and its media.
- deleted 7y ago[deleted]
- otaviokz 7y agoMy anecdotal experience agrees with your point. I'm a Brazilian living in UK, and have worked for 2 different big American companies (Dell Computers and Ford Motors). It's very obvious that, comparing to both Brazilian and British cultures, Americans appear to value confidence far more, to the point of coming across as bullish when you're not familiar with it. Again, it's just my experience.
- deleted 7y ago[deleted]
- simmanian 7y agoI can anecdotally confirm the American side. My manager values confidence to the point where he sees it as the number one signal for actual competence. I started acting more confident and aggressive to appease him, and realized that everyone else has already been doing it all along.
- yason 7y agoHow is that sustainable? Does the scheme lack a feedback loop of sorts or why doesn't he (or the stereotypical American people of similar attitude) realise that the overconfident-looking people aren't necessarily that competent? I mean, competence is a hard quality: you immediately know who's lacking it when you see someone who really, truly has competence. You can only fake it till so far.
- deleted 7y ago[deleted]
- leetcrew 7y agounless you collect data points over a relatively long period of time, it's hard to assess the competence of a developer. you might have one person on a team who works on bugs in ascending order of difficulty and closes many tickets every day. you might have another who works on high-priority difficult bugs, but takes several days on each one. either person could be a valuable member of the team, but how do you say which one is more competent in a quick glance?
- Circuits 7y agoHonestly, most managers are not constantly evaluating their team. They have other work to do. I think employees tend to believe that the only thing on their managers mind is them when in reality it's the furthest thing from their mind.
- Circuits 7y agoIn my experience as an American (32 years) most Americans fight hard for the rich. If you tell someone: "Their rich because their parents were rich." you will almost always be met with resistance and it usually comes from an individual of a lower class. I don't know why it is but that's just how it is. It was amazing to see so many poor people voting for Trump and then when you tell them a few facts about Trump and how completely opposite his life has been to theirs they not only resist it but in some cases get very angry.
- bradknowles 7y agoIt's because they have hopes and dreams that one day, they'll be the rich guy that everyone is talking about. Which is precisely what the rich people want them to think.
- rosege 7y agoThere was a book written along these lines a few years ago [1]. We've had an election just here in Australia and there is definitely evidence of the same thing now occurring here. [1]https://www.amazon.com/dp/B01EEQ9BSW https://www.amazon.com/dp/B01EEQ9BSW
- taneq 7y agoTemporarily embarrassed or not, millionaires still look out for other millionaires like themselves.
- ionised 7y agoSomeone might want to tell them that over half the wealth in the US is inherited.
- athroway 7y agoThis is certainly not unique to America but it's true the "poor people suck" vibe seems especially prevalent there.
- shados 7y agoConfirmation bias here, but I find this fascinating. I'm Canadian living in the US, and see these overconfident people who are incompetent in the industry and it drives me banana, but across several previous jobs (again, in the US), everyone seemed completely oblivious to it and thought these people were awesome (they were absolutely not). In one case, I watched a high executive tank a company into the ground (provably, with numbers to back it up that it was as a direct result of their own decisions) and got promoted 3 times for it. Eventually left their job and took an even higher position at another, bigger company. No one seems to notice this. Its insane.
- borkt 7y agoSeen this too, literally leaving a company's production in shambles then takes a promotion to work at a competitor.
- shados 7y agoyup, thats what happened...but even more is that before that, they got promoted...at the company in shambles. Multiple times.
- cannonedhamster 7y agoThis isn't uncommon... Sadly. This is what happens when politics in a company is more important than deliverables the customers pay for. It's generally a sign the company is in a death spiral.
- dorgo 7y agoWait, maybe it's not incompetence but strategy?
- challenger22 7y agoWhen you will still be wealthy regardless of the outcome of any decision you make, you can try more things and take more risks. This fosters as confidence. If you are competent in your risk-taking, it shows up. If you are not, it manifests as overconfidence. Wealth does not create overconfidence; it only reveals it.
- zaphod4prez 7y agoCan you share some evidence for that claim? It doesn't seem intuitively true to me, but I could be convinced that higher risk-tolerance tends to be rewarded. I'd be curious to hear more about where your idea comes from.
- challenger22 7y agoThe "It's hard to take risks if you don't have a safety net" thread that's been active today has plenty of evidence for it (https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=19958301 https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=19958301). My argument is the flip side of (and generalization of) the usual claim that poor people are discouraged to try anything entrepeneurial. Another competing claim could be that rich people are honestly less competent than poor people. I could easily argue against that one; IQ and conscientiousness are highly positively correlated with income, based on numerous sociological studies. People who dispute this fact have an agenda.
- fwip 7y agoIQ and conscientiousness, as we measure them, are correlated with income. I believe it remains to be shown that "competence" is also correlated with income.
- JohnFen 7y ago> IQ and conscientiousness, as we measure them, are correlated with income. They are? Do you have studies indicating this?
- adolph 7y agoI think that the article didn't do a good job of explaining why a person's overconfidence is "interpreted by strangers as competence." Maybe there are many dimensions to competence and a deficit in one area of competence might be made up for by a surplus in another area. Maybe "High-Class" is a multivariate description that often includes high social competence that gives other people an impression of generalized competence. As examples: 1. Oppenheimer's poisoned apple and 2. Having a towel. 1 https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2006/09/04/no-mercy https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2006/09/04/no-mercy 2 https://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/authors/the-hitchhikers-guide-to-the-galaxy-the-best-douglas-adams-quote/douglas-adams-on-the-importance-of-towels-from-the-hitchhikers-g/ https://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/authors/the-hitchhikers-gu...
- jxramos 7y agoSounds like a special instance of the _omne ignotum pro magnifico est_ proclivity of human nature. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/omne%20ignotum%20pro%20magnifico%20est https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/omne%20ignotum%20...
- pbhjpbhj 7y ago"the unknown appears to be amazing" or something along those lines: apparently a Sherlock Holmes reference. https://study.com/academy/answer/what-does-sherlock-holmes-phrase-omne-ignotum-pro-magnifico-mean.html https://study.com/academy/answer/what-does-sherlock-holmes-p...
- whatshisface 7y ago>“We may also need to punish overconfident behavior more than we do,” she said. Who is "we?" Maybe overconfident behavior is adaptive in a world where risk-taking works out enough of the time. Not all overconfidence takes the form of "I rationally know I can't do it but I'll try anyway," it is often closer to, "I rationally don't know whether or not I can do it, but I'll assume that I can and press on."
- dkarl 7y agoWhen faced with a task, there's a difference between believing that you can eventually learn and work it out given time and effort, and believing that you're already capable of doing it. What's frustrating is when the only people who are given the opportunity to fail over and over again and eventually get it right are the ones who never recognize that they can, do, and have failed.
- bigred100 7y agoI think it’s very often not adaptive. Eg some parents are very confident in their ability to conduct medical research in their spare time, and the result is measles outbreaks.
- whatshisface 7y agoThose parent's aren't "conducting medical research," they are believing what they are hearing from sources they trust more than medical researchers (their own friends and families). In fact, it would take more self-confidence in their ability to do research in order for them to learn the information necessary to step back from their community evaluate the risks on their own.
- naasking 7y ago> Not all overconfidence takes the form of "I rationally know I can't do it but I'll try anyway," it is often closer to, "I rationally don't know whether or not I can do it, but I'll assume that I can and press on." "The reasonable man adapts himself to the world: the unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt the world to himself. Therefore all progress depends on the unreasonable man." ~ George Bernard Shaw ~
- antt 7y agoI find it odd how Americans try to convince themselves there are a lot of ways to be high class. A doctor might have slightly better standing than a plumber but ask yourself this, who would be served first in a restaurant, the doctor, the plumber, or the millionaire who just drove in on a Ferrari with a model on each arm?
- JohnFen 7y ago> Americans try to convince themselves there are a lot of ways to be high class. I don't think this way at all. I tend to lean toward "high class" being an essentially meaningless term.
- dazilcher 7y agoThere are more American millionaires than you imagine. Heck, I bet half the people posting here qualify. I'm not sure your point, as stated, makes sense.
- wallflower 7y agoA quote from George Foreman about longshoremen. What is real wealth?: Mr. Foreman, who stared down financial collapse as an adult despite a troubled, impoverished childhood, said he knew real wealth when he saw it. “If you’re confident, you’re wealthy,” he says. “I’ve seen guys who work on a ship channel and they get to a certain point and they’re confident. You can look in their faces, they’re longshoremen, and they have this confidence about them...I’ve seen a lot of guys with millions and they don’t have any confidence,” he says. “So they’re not wealthy.”
- fwip 7y agoIt's easy for a multi-millionare to say "money isn't wealth."
- JohnFen 7y agoTrue, but that doesn't make it false. "Wealth" is one of those terms (like "success") that is pretty squishy, though. People can, and do, disagree about what they mean.
- umvi 7y agoFor me, knowledge is wealth - it's the universal currency and has a long shelf life. If you strip away all worldly possessions of any two people, the person with more knowledge is wealthier. The best part is that you can't simply trade money for knowledge - you have to work for it no matter how rich you are. Bill Gates could dump a billion dollars into a world class Japanese course and still struggle to attain fluency if he doesn't work at it with his own sweat and mental energy. In other words, true wealth in my opinion is the ability to generate value if your brain/soul were dropped in a random homeless person's body in a random era. Something tells me Paris Hilton wouldn't fare as well as Leonardo DaVinci.
- Qwertystop 7y agoOn the other hand, Gates could absolutely hire an interpreter. You can't trade money for /personal/ knowledge but you can trade it for the time and effort of someone else who knows things.
- purplezooey 7y agoSomething in our evolution must have rewarded people who listened to that guy in the cave who was a big talker. Seriously.
- CPLX 7y agoThat's plausible. A good explanation would be that in general consequences back then were a lot more lethal. So the guy who was overconfident beyond their abilities and rushed into battle, or into a hunting situation, or a conflict with a neighbor, would probably end up dead pretty quickly. So if they were expressing confidence, and still around, it would likely be pretty directly correlated with actual ability. It's a bit of a just-so story but it has some resonance to it.
- SerLava 7y agoThat makes sense but maybe we don't need that explanation. It could really be possible that the best-designed decision making robot would use confidence as a heuristic. It would fail in the same ways we fail, but it would probably perform worse in general if you removed that bias.
- sgift 7y agoOr the guy who was good at convincing others that it is foolproof got to live another day if it wasn't while they died. Survival by bullshitting.
- exabrial 7y agoNyt can now detect private mode browsing? Seems like a bug in Chrome.
- wolco 7y agoNo.. not on my mobile browser
- hashberry 7y agoIt's because the browser disables certain features (I believe FileSystem API) which makes it easier to fingerprint. One workaround is to clear storage in devtools (Application tab) whenever visiting NYTimes and smile that you're messing with their analytics and tracking data.
- exabrial 7y agoCan't do that on mobile ugh...
- api 7y agoFrom what I've personally seen the people who get away with incompetence the most are high-charisma people. I've countless times seen people with a certain "reality distortion field" kind of charisma spew utterly inane nonsense in front seasoned professionals who really do know better and they just nod and swallow it. Charisma seems to bypass the rational mind completely. It tells the brain stem "the person speaking is an alpha primate" and the neocortex switches off. The inverse is also true. People with low charisma can say incredibly wise, rational, and insightful things and they're often ignored. IMHO a lot of what is wrong with our world can be explained by this. At the same time it also creates a contrarian opportunity to benefit by calling bullshit on charismatic charlatans and paying attention to quieter people who know what they're talking about.
- itronitron 7y agoI think the takeaway here is that people that talk a lot and think they know it all ultimately have more opportunities for success, and are less impeded by their limitations than their peers so the odds favor them over the long run. That personality trait is handed down from parents to children through breeding, most likely intentionally.
- strikelaserclaw 7y agoThe article mentions that this is only the case if the person is well off to start with since they can mess up without many consequences so it isn't nearly as damaging to have overconfidence.
- Animats 7y agoDistrust of overconfident people is a skill that needs to be taught. A class on this might include film clips of famous con men and failures, from Bernie Madoff to Shai Agassi. Here's Bernie Madoff, after he was a crook but before he was caught.[1] Here's Shai Agassi, before Better Place went bust spending about half a billion on their battery swap system and putting about 30 cars on the road.[2] What can you see there? [1] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=auSfaavHDXQ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=auSfaavHDXQ [2] https://www.ted.com/talks/shai_agassi_on_electric_cars/transcript?language=en https://www.ted.com/talks/shai_agassi_on_electric_cars/trans...
- ghostbrainalpha 7y agoA BS detection class would be interesting. It's too easy to look at videos of famous liars like Madoff or Bill Clinton and say its easy to tell they are lying because of their body language, in hindsight. I would love to videos of non famous people telling lies about themselves and try to see if I could spot the liars at greater than average percentages. Maybe that's an idea for a fun website.... Of course event this course wouldn't help you when the liars actually believe their own bullshit, which seems to be fairly common among the most successful fraudsters.
- claytonjy 7y agothis might not be quite what you're looking for, but the Calling Bullshit site/course [0] is pretty great. It's not about reading body language, but instead about finding issues in arguments as laid out in the media, scientific literate, and elsewhere. Really, really excellent examples, including some very recent ones. [0] https://www.callingbullshit.org/ https://www.callingbullshit.org/
- dd36 7y agoTrump could be the whole class.
- whenchamenia 7y agoBetween trump and elon you would never run out of examples.
- Hoasi 7y ago> “We may also need to punish overconfident behavior more than we do,” Unfortunately, the article doesn't expand on this idea. How or why doing so would produce better results?
- skookumchuck 7y agoPeople who achieve success were often initially derided as delusional, overconfident, etc. Overconfidence, in other words, gave them the impetus to try, and it's amazing how trying gets results in achieving the impossible. On the other side, I see time after time competent people giving up at the very first (and often trivial) obstacle. > We may also need to punish overconfident behavior more than we do This smacks more of a desire to tear down people one is envious of than a recipe for improving society.
- eevilspock 7y agoRelated: Blue-collar workers who become white-collar later in life https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=19946759 https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=19946759
- tomp 7y agoHumans have extremely skewed perception of risks and rewards. As such, "more confidence" doesn't necessarily mean "overconfidence", but might actually mean "less underconfidence". For example, talking to strangers and/or crowds carries almost no actual risks, and has a lot of potential benefits. On the other hand, driving is quite risky, but we don't think twice about it... But psychologically, most people have their perception anchored to the average behavior, so things that are actually rational (meeting strangers) appears as "overconfidence" and things that are actually quite reckless (driving, not exercising, eating sugar, drinking alcohol) we think of as "normal".
- snazz 7y agoPublic speaking holds a high risk of embarrassment in front of a crowd (although it’s a self-fulfilling prophecy). It’s telling that humans care more about risk to their image than risk to their bodies, as a major difference from most other less social species.
- cirrus-clouds 7y agoI'm from the UK where British politics is dysfunctional and rotten to the core. Politics is overstuffed with wealthy "upper class" individuals of breathtaking incompetence and a nasty, dishonest, duplicitous nature. Yet, despite that, if you have a well-spoken, articulate voice and accent, the public will perceive you as competent and sensible no matter what bollocks you spout. Depressing.
- stefan_ 7y agoBritish politics seem to have a few psychoses, like the "special relationship" or the fact that it's now a mostly negligible island, not some world reigning imperialist superpower.
- hobo_mark 7y agoOh, TIL! https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Relationship https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Relationship
- NeedMoreTea 7y agoA special relationship that's meant little since Suez, except during the Thatcher-Reagan years as they got on so well personally. Every PM since has tried to talk it up, whilst knowing their place full well. See Blair, the faithful poodle. The rose-tinted mourning of the loss of empire and former superpower status (see this week's universally negative reviews of Rees-Mogg's jingoistic "history" book) amongst some in Britain is a good part of why many have such a negative view of Europe. Many don't feel part of it, but merely next to it, looking down. It's this that the Daily Heil keep talking up. A mindset which is really hard to understand, but it seems like they think that exiting will put us back as global superpower, trading with the world, and... err. This from a Britain that sells off everything significant and worthy of pride we've ever done, or simply ruins it, and only just remains a blue-water navy. I'm not quite sure how this magic is ever meant to happen. :) Staying a part of Europe makes far more sense to me, but after Brexit it will be really hard for those euroskeptics to continue to believe we count for much. The reality of our being a post-imperial insignificant little island might start to sink in, especially if the city decides to bugger off. Ironically, in the long run, we might end up better for that.
- johnnycab 7y agoClass is an accent, not a bank balance.
- nathancahill 7y agohttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9tXBC-71aZs https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9tXBC-71aZs
- deleted 7y ago[deleted]
- jameane 7y agoI had an interview experience not too long after I finished college. I don't remember the specifics, but it was for an entry level administrative assistant role. I had plenty of experience in retail, customer service, event planning and working at the front desk of my college - so totally relevant stuff. The interviewer asked me why I was so confident. And why I had the nerve to want to dig into the terms of the job (salary, growth opportunities and the like - I was a late stage candidate). Full disclosure - I can't think of a time where I have been perceived as arrogant at all. I am generally well-liked and personable. The interviewer seemed to have some sort of implicit bias - I think she really didn't think that black people should be confident in a professional environment. I can't imagine that she would have taken similar offense to a white guy asking those sorts of questions.
- carlmr 7y agoJust one piece of anecdata. I'm white as snow and got the same question from HR before. I also found it weird.
- jameane 7y agoIt's entirely possible she didn't think that way. But prior to and after that experience I did have people (outside of an interview context) that explicitly told me I should not have my level of confidence due to their perceived racial expectations. So I could be overly sensitive to the whole thing.
- gwbas1c 7y agoI faced similar attitudes in interviews early in my career. It has nothing to do with skin color, and all to do with prejudices about people without much career experience. In one case, one interviewer basically told me that I lied about how much I made in an internship. (I didn't lie.) Now that I'm on the other side of the table, I can tell you that the hardest interviews to run are for recent college graduates. It requires a lot of "would I know this back then" thinking.
- cascom 7y agoI interview plenty of recent graduates, most of whom come off as "over-confident", to their credit, they most definitely have great pedigrees and compare well with their peers and will likely be great additions. However, they down-the-line have no clue what they are talking about, or how to do the job they are applying for...regardless of gender/race/etc.
- ycombonator 7y agoDuh they get away with everything. Include politicians in the category.
- njharman 7y agoLot of comments are saying confidence, not overconfidence. Very different things. Confidence is great, in both you and others you are "entrusting" somehow. The problem is lack of competence. What is the definition of overconfidence. I'd argue being less competent than your confidence warrants. Where as if you're competent then being confident is "correct". The difference is whether someone is competent or not. Not if they are confident or not. The problem is not confidence. It's peoples in ability to gauge competence / using confidence as an indicator of competence. Which is what the OA says, but many comments here are diverging from that and going off on tangents about confidence.
- cascom 7y agoNowhere does the research imply incompetence - the word only shows up in the title and the last paragraph of the article... Overconfidence != Incompetence
- Diggitysc 7y agoSome of the baseline assumptions and conclusions are off in my opinion. Specifically, it was never addressed if individuals had an inflated view of their own skills or their ability to complete a given task. Regardless of an individuals skill in reference to a given task (listed as average among high-class individuals post testing), due to their wealth, high-class individuals absolutely have a greater ability to accomplish any given task as they have demonstrably greater social access and a larger pool of resources to throw at any given problem. Confidence is not a flat gauge of raw ability but also availability of resources to accomplish a given task. Using the "Parks and Rec" example, Bobby Newport utilizes his wealth to hire Jennifer Barkley, an elite political campaign manager.
- sharadov 7y agoI believe the article is confusing chutzpah for overconfidence. Most wealthy high - class people are business owners. If you can't project confidence to the point of being overconfident, you can't be attracting people, investments for your next venture. Look at the entrepreneur class vs the salaried class? Wealthy people teach their kids to be supremely confident, while poor people teach their kids to be doubting Thomases!
- rc_kas 7y agoDid you read this in Enclopedia Fromthebuttica?
- dang 7y agoCan you please not break the site guidelines, regardless of how arbitrary or annoying another comment is or you feel it is? Maybe it doesn't deserve better, but the community deserves better. https://news.ycombinator.com/newsguidelines.html https://news.ycombinator.com/newsguidelines.html
- tehf0x 7y agoDownvote away, I laughed a good one.
- scarejunba 7y agoTop banter. A light-hearted way to illustrate the ridiculousness of this assertion presented without evidence.
- sharadov 7y agoRead it? You're talking to the author :-)
- q-base 7y agoI think part of it can be explained or attributed to a life of people "catering" to you. Higher social class will in a lot of circles mean that a lot of people look up to you or wants to be your friend. One way of doing that is always giving the higher social status peer a lot of praise for anything he/she does. If you always receive a lot of praise for anything you do, no matter the actual significance of it, then naturally your own perception of your skills inflates unproportionally to reality.
- rjf72 7y agoThis paper was published in The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. That's interesting for two reasons. The first is that it's a rather well regarded journal with a very high impact rate. The other is because it's one of the journals that's driven the replication crisis plaguing psychology. [1] In particular the journal this was published in was found to have an overall replication rate of 23%. Another way of putting this is that if you assumed anything you read in this journal was not true, you'd be vastly more accurately informed (nearly a 4:1 rate!) than somebody who genuinely believed what was published in the journal. Anyhow, back to your regularly scheduled series of anecdotal accounts validating confirmation bias. [1] - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis#Psychology_replication_rates https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis#Psychology_...