I would say it is fraud significantly more than 20% of the time if it is in a fashionable field (e.g. machine learning). This is a depressing realisation I came

I would say it is fraud significantly more than 20% of the time if it is in a fashionable field (e.g. machine learning). This is a depressing realisation I came to after spending a significant amount of time (months? Perhaps more than a year) attempting to reproduce ML results from papers, to test for commercial viability. The work itself was incredibly cool and motivating (IMO it is the missing link between cutting edge science and the business world, and if I had gotten better results perhaps we could have picked researchers to sponsor), but the depressing reality was that the academic world (which I left because I was frustrated with how far from practical it was) is an island. People do things there, it does not have to be true or work and very frequently it's concerned with publishing lies for money. It reflects corporate life very closely, except it pretends to be something it is not.