It does: > Geography. Jeffrey Sachs and others have long argued that geography is destiny: landlocked, tropical, distant-from-markets countries face structural

It does: > Geography. Jeffrey Sachs and others have long argued that geography is destiny: landlocked, tropical, distant-from-markets countries face structural penalties through transport costs, disease burden, and weak agricultural conditions. Malawi has all three. Sure, but the empirical literature pegs the landlocked penalty at about 1% of annual growth. This is meaningful over decades, not enough to close a gap this large in per-capita income. Rwanda is more landlocked than Malawi and has grown faster. Uzbekistan is double-landlocked and has roughly tripled per-capita income since 2000. Did you even ctrl+f?