> Drawing on existing research [3], our preliminary analysis of these programs and configurations suggests that the network stack architecture is somewhat simil

> Drawing on existing research [3], our preliminary analysis of these programs and configurations suggests that the network stack architecture is somewhat similar to DPDK [4], mainly relying on a user-space C++ program to bypass the kernel for handling network packets. The way it usually works is that the initial packets are handled in software but once the endpoints are established it flows through hardware. Sometimes certain patterns are always handled in software. The software could be a patched kernel or a XDP style kernel bypass. Source: worked peripherally on an Intel Puma cable modem router/gateway that used DPDK or something like it. So I'm not 100% sure, but it is an educated guess.