> The other side to this, is that most who left the countryside for the cities did not see a marked improvement in living standards, they simply swapped poverty

> The other side to this, is that most who left the countryside for the cities did not see a marked improvement in living standards, they simply swapped poverty in the countryside for poverty in the city. Most, perhaps, but not all, and not forever. Cities managed to generate enough productivity to raise the populace up - of course, it took the likes of the labour movement to ensure the spoils were actually spread among the people. But the rural regions didn't even get that far; they were poor and have remained poor.