> the oxides of aluminum, magnesium, and nickel were not in use as paint pigments Aluminum oxides were used as a pigment, predominantly in blue (cobalt aluminu

> the oxides of aluminum, magnesium, and nickel were not in use as paint pigments Aluminum oxides were used as a pigment, predominantly in blue (cobalt aluminum oxide) but also in white. In any case, the dominant white dyes of the Early Modern period -- and prior periods -- were lead based. The presence of TiO2-based pigments is actually one good way to identify a modern forgery. > the particularly relevant issue here, as i understand it, is that titanium has a stable carbide This turned out to be solvable via calciothermic or magnesiothermic reduction -- which is now effectively the go-to method for just about everything that can't be reduced with carbon. All titanium dioxide reduction processes demand quite a lot of energy, though; more than aluminum and far more than iron.