I recommend Bret Devereaux's series on medieval fortifications, specifically the manpower problem [1]: > While sapping (tunneling under and collapsing fortific

I recommend Bret Devereaux's series on medieval fortifications, specifically the manpower problem [1]: > While sapping (tunneling under and collapsing fortifications) remained in use, apart from filling in ditches, the mole-and-ramp style assaults of the ancient world are far less common, precisely because most armies (due to the aforementioned fragmentation combined with the increasing importance in warfare of a fairly small mounted elite) lacked both the organizational capacity and the raw numbers to do them. Overall, medieval armies just didn't have the resources to siege for as long and as intensely as the Romans and other ancient armies did. Until the early modern period and gunpowder artillery, defenders in castles had a much bigger advantage over attackers so often attackers just didn't bother. They were more common than actual pitched battles though and most ended through surrender rather than successful assault. The book Devereaux mentions Soldiers’ Lives Through History: The Middle Ages is a great resource for further reading - there's a whole chapter on sieges. It starts out describing how much worse the life for siegers often was compared to the besieged. [1] https://acoup.blog/2021/12/10/collections-fortification-part-iii-castling/ https://acoup.blog/2021/12/10/collections-fortification-part...