Another commenter has mentioned nonstandard analysis but I find that most people (commonly physicists, engineers) who are manipulating dy and dx are not actuall

Another commenter has mentioned nonstandard analysis but I find that most people (commonly physicists, engineers) who are manipulating dy and dx are not actually using the framework of nonstandard analysis. What usually is going on is you mentally replace dx and dy with Delta x and Delta y = y(x + Delta x) - y(x), where Delta x is some small nonzero quantity. After doing your manipulations, you take the limit as Delta x -> 0. Then you have rigorous statements like Delta y / Delta x -> f'(x) (this is the definition of derivative), and Delta x/Delta x = 1, and (Delta x)^2/Delta x -> 0 (ability to neglect second order terms), etc. You do this type of thing so many times and it becomes rote and annoying to explicitly mention the limits and the reader is trusted to formalize it themselves as an exercise. The stuff that you are "allowed" to do is taught in a first course in real analysis. After taking such a course, you will be able to justify for yourself which manipulations are valid.