Dunning-Kruger as a scientific result has been thoroughly discredited. The statistical effect they identified occurs in random data as much as real-world data.

Dunning-Kruger as a scientific result has been thoroughly discredited. The statistical effect they identified occurs in random data as much as real-world data. https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/critical-thinking/dunning-kruger-effect-probably-not-real https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/critical-thinking/dunning-... This does not mean that the idea "Sometimes people who know less are more confident" is not valid in some cases. It just isn't a general principle.