>microarchitecture or an OS are large, complex systems, but we expect them to perform reliably. Well-understood modularity boundaries are of course quite import

>microarchitecture or an OS are large, complex systems, but we expect them to perform reliably. Well-understood modularity boundaries are of course quite important for this We expect them to mostly approximate correct operation but know that there are bugs at pretty much every level. See Spectre, rowhammer, dirty pipe, etc.