The actual study [1] discussed in the OP even discourages the use of "fake news": > Finally, public officeholders must not use the label “fake news” to discred

The actual study [1] discussed in the OP even discourages the use of "fake news": > Finally, public officeholders must not use the label “fake news” to discredit their opponents or, in particular, the free press. The most famous example is Donald Trump, who is sometimes credited with popularizing the term “fake news” itself. The labeling of certain press outlets as fake is particularly damaging because, as explained above, fake news masquerades as real news. If citizens believe that others accept the labeling of regular news sources as fake, their view that their fellow citizens are unable to distinguish real news from fake news is exacerbated. In such a situation, the democratic system itself (through its representatives) fans the flames of epistemic distrust and confusion. For this to happen, it is sufficient that citizens are convinced that others believe the accusations that certain information is false. The use of the “fake news” label by public officials is thus a direct attack on the sociological and normative legitimacy of democratic institutions and is correspondingly insidious. Instead, public officials ought to work toward fulfilling their obligations to safeguard and promote epistemic trust among democratic citizens. 1. https://www.jesp.org/index.php/jesp/article/view/1258/362 https://www.jesp.org/index.php/jesp/article/view/1258/362