> they test safety effectiveness by giving doses of varying size, often times below the level of clinical effectiveness. OK, good point. But even then there n

> they test safety effectiveness by giving doses of varying size, often times below the level of clinical effectiveness. OK, good point. But even then there needs to be a reasonable belief that either (1) the likelihood of clinical effectiveness is nonzero, and is still worth trying compared to the smaller chance of bad effects, or (2) the same patient will be able to receive a clinically effective dose in the future based on the safety information gained testing the smaller, clinically ineffective dose on them.