>Although most animals might not show reciprocity now, we can look at extreme examples like dogs to show that it is possible over generations. Wolves are socia

>Although most animals might not show reciprocity now, we can look at extreme examples like dogs to show that it is possible over generations. Wolves are social mammals in the first place. The creation of dogs amounted to deliberately taming and selectively breeding wolves who would understand ever-more-slightly humanoid social structures in place of their previous wolf social structures. Even now, a dog does not carry a fully human sense of reciprocity and equality, merely a very nurturing and cooperative concept of pack-structure. (Actually, even now, most humans don't carry a fully human sense of reciprocity and equality. Most humans are more like the dogs than we care to admit in terms of which social structures we've trained them to understand: hierarchy and one-way domination over reciprocity and equality remain the human norm when we leave our armchairs.) Since many animals are not even social mammals, I think it would take radical measures to instill them with a humanoid moral sense capable of reciprocity, and that brings on its own ethical issues.